Ken Shirriff

Computer history. Reverse-engineering old chips. Restored Apollo Guidance Computer, Xerox Alto. Ex-Google, Sun, Msft. So-called boffin.

Blog: https://righto.com
Bluesky: https://bsky.app/profile/righto.com
Github: https://github.com/shirriff

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npub1mgq5f2207ye4p2q55ge5qytuc4qsj6zw7cu79k735yq04c5as9wqqysjel

NIP-05 Address

[email protected]

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nprofile1qqsd5q2y498lzv6s4q22yv6qz97v2sgfdp80vw0zm0g6zq86u2wczhqpz3mhxue69uhhyetvv9ujuerpd46hxtnfduqs6amnwvaz7tmwdaejumr0ds2lnuuk

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relay.damus.io

nos.lol

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npub1mgq5f2207ye4p2q55ge5qytuc4qsj6zw7cu79k735yq04c5as9wqqysjel

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Last Notes

2026-08-30 17:51:56 GMT

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The core memory is arranged with 16 horizontal lines of cores to store each of the 18 bits in a word. This photo shows how the tiny wires from the core plane are soldered to the much larger traces on the circuit board.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/185/714/637/803/038/original/a911530bccd99314.png

2026-08-30 17:43:56 GMT

Before semiconductor RAM, most computers used magnetic core memory. This is the 128 KB core stack from the computer on Spacelab, the Space Shuttle's experimental laboratory. Let's take a closer look...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/185/696/405/906/640/original/b2ee8b4232a3449d.png

2026-08-03 19:28:29 GMT

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Yes, the RSS feed for my blog is https://www.righto.com/feeds/posts/default

2026-07-31 20:27:03 GMT

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Nice! I have an MS7A module too, and wrote about it here: https://www.righto.com/2026/06/ibm-604-thyraton-tube-module.html

2026-07-31 20:20:25 GMT

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Yes, the tube is based on a regular tube (the 6J6), but IBM redesigned it for more reliability. They changed the grid and plate to avoid shorts from tiny conductive particles and split the shared cathode into two separate cathodes. (Source: "IBM's Early Computers", p66)

2026-07-31 18:33:33 GMT

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I might be able to identify your tube module. Does it have a label on the handle, like TH-1? How many pins does the base of the module have? 9 or 10?

2026-07-31 17:13:55 GMT

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Diversity was limited to the hairstyles.

2026-07-31 16:47:34 GMT

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To IBM's credit, they advertised this system as equivalent to 150 extra engineers, not as a replacement for 150 existing engineers.

2026-07-31 16:40:36 GMT

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The IBM 604 calculator used about 1300 tubes and rented for $550 a month. It was a very popular system with over 5600 units produced. IBM advertised it as equivalent to 150 engineers.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/015/576/500/307/189/original/747a970b66c561f1.png

2026-07-31 16:39:34 GMT

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I've powered up the trigger module in this video. It is switched on or off by two inputs and remembers its state until switched again. I push two buttons to turn it on or off, and its state is displayed by two vintage neon bulbs. This may seem trivial, but the trigger (now called a flip-flop) is a key component of computers.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/015/571/863/271/726/original/07a1af6ed453ee13.mp4

2026-07-31 16:38:27 GMT

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The tube module uses a "dual triode" tube, two amplifiers in one glass tube. In the first photo, the two vertical dark rectangles are the two plates. The second photo shows the tube powered up, with the heaters glowing orange at the top and bottom.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/015/566/706/359/580/original/4ead1939bfa3c5c5.png
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/015/568/432/919/285/original/1d5074f0e5ce82bf.png

2026-07-31 16:37:19 GMT

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Before transistors, vacuum tubes were widely used as switches and amplifiers. A heater heats up the cathode, which emits electrons. They are attracted to the plate, causing current to flow. A negative voltage on the grid blocks the electrons, controlling the current flow.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/015/564/788/749/890/original/2d7b1955194a9a0b.png

2026-07-31 16:36:42 GMT

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This module was part of IBM's 604 Electronic Calculating Punch. It read 100 punch cards a minute, performed calculations that were specified by a wiring panel, and punched the results on cards. In the lower left, you can see rows of tube modules with their handles sticking out.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/015/562/323/770/681/original/a408f85557acabac.png

2026-07-31 16:36:03 GMT

This vacuum tube module was used in an IBM programmable calculator from 1948. This module, called a "trigger", stored one bit of information. Let's take a closer look and see the module operate.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/117/015/559/214/037/952/original/b0cfbaf5ef80dc65.png

2026-06-28 16:30:48 GMT

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Credits: IOP boards provided by Richard, 4 Pi board from @npub1xvg…62t2.
Photo of the IOP and CPU courtesy of RR Auction. IOP documentation from Mike Stewart. Exploded diagram from https://ibiblio.org/apollo/Shuttle/IBM-74-A31-016%20-%20Space%20Shuttle%20Advanced%20System,%204%20Pi%20-%20Prototype%20Input,%20Output%20Processor%20(IOP).pdf#page=145

2026-06-28 16:29:58 GMT

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Want more photos? Or more info, such as how the I/O processor implements 25 virtual processors with two instruction sets on top of a single physical processor? See my latest article: https://www.righto.com/2026/06/space-shuttle-io-processor-boards.html

2026-06-28 16:29:31 GMT

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This diagram shows how the circuit boards (called pages) were plugged into the I/O Processor's aluminum-alloy case. For storage, the system used magnetic core memory, larger pages at the back. This system didn't use a microprocessor; it was built from 11 logic pages crammed with simple chips.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/828/677/897/496/599/original/bdb367657aa33065.png

2026-06-28 16:29:01 GMT

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IBM had a series of aerospace computers called System/4 Pi. These computers all used standard-sized boards (top). Except that the I/O Processor's boards (bottom) were one inch wider. I guess they needed the extra space for more circuitry.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/828/673/973/376/821/original/985dec12c33bec0c.png

2026-06-28 16:27:42 GMT

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The second board is memory (PROM), holding microcode for the I/O Processor, which is a (very strange) computer, independent of the CPU. Each gold-lidded chip holds 2K bits in tiny metal fuses. The chip is programmed by blowing the fuse for each 1 bit, literally burning the PROM.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/828/669/255/124/008/original/f5b63626e97c53c9.png

2026-06-28 16:26:34 GMT

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First board is a network interface. Each side is identical and supports two networks. The IBM hybrid module (right) contains tiny transistors, resistors, etc. to handle the analog stuff. The golden Motorola chips format bits to transmit and receive them. The other chips are mostly shift registers.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/828/666/648/657/801/original/34d509457549d267.png

2026-06-28 16:25:31 GMT

The Space Shuttle had five general-purpose computers that controlled, monitored, and navigated the Shuttle. Each computer consisted of two boxes: the CPU (right) and the I/O Processor (IOP, left). The IOP connected the computer to 24 high-speed networks. Let's look at two boards from the IOP... 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/828/658/722/675/690/original/bdfb7e5580604b74.png
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/828/660/601/395/337/original/ad557b5e6d305fc9.png

2026-06-13 19:01:24 GMT

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Intel used parallel prefix adders later, such as Kogge-Stone in the Pentium.
The big shifter for normalization is on the left.
For more info:
https://www.righto.com/2025/01/pentium-carry-lookahead-reverse-engineered.html
https://www.righto.com/2020/05/die-analysis-of-8087-math-coprocessors.html
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/744/340/032/252/450/original/0ec51fadea0fd87b.png

2026-06-13 16:26:30 GMT

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For full details, see my latest article:
https://www.righto.com/2026/06/intel-8087-adder-reverse-engineered.html
A group of us, including @npub1dhl…ud8y and Smartest Blob are reverse-engineering the 8087.

2026-06-13 16:25:09 GMT

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For those who like schematics, here's four bits of the adder, reverse-engineered. It's too complicated to explain here, but for those who care: "Manchester carry chain" computes carries, along with a "carry skip" circuit. "F" is the input from the fraction bus and "prop" is the "propagate" value.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/743/726/127/807/543/original/a73dd461f0733a38.png

2026-06-13 16:24:32 GMT

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The adder is part of a set of registers and shifters that make multiplication, division, and square roots fast. The 8087 multiplies two bits at a time (twice as fast) thanks to the Multiply Decision Box and selector. The Quotient Register is for division. Square roots get bits from the Skip Shifter.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/743/722/965/091/352/original/3457386159ab295c.png

2026-06-13 16:23:47 GMT

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I dissolved the metal with acid so you can see the silicon circuits in the 8087 chip. The pinkish regions are doped silicon. The thin lines are polysilicon wires on top of the silicon. When polysilicon crosses doped silicon, it forms transistors, the switches that make circuits work.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/743/719/789/474/126/original/eb47f66b71430536.png

2026-06-13 16:22:57 GMT

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For performance, the adder is constructed in blocks of four bits. Here's one block under the microscope. This shows the chip's single metal layer, the metal wiring on top of the silicon that connects things. Modern chips can have over 20 layers. The thick vertical wires on the side power the adder.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/743/716/430/939/104/original/30e562f8857f5642.png

2026-06-13 16:21:58 GMT

Intel introduced the 8087 floating-point chip in 1980 to make math faster. The chip does tangents, square roots, and so forth, but fundamentally everything is computed through additions and subtractions, performed by an adder at the heart of the chip. Let's look at the adder's circuitry... 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/743/713/202/353/709/original/a352daf872448c4b.jpg

2026-06-07 19:02:50 GMT

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Yes, the thyratron is very similar to an SCR (also known as a thyristor: thyratron transistor).

2026-06-07 19:00:50 GMT

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I've powered up one of those 8-tube modules before: https://www.righto.com/2018/01/ibm-mainframe-tube-module-part-ii.html
The eight tubes have nothing to do with bytes (which didn't exist at the time). Eight tubes was just a convenient size for a module. They generally don't handle 8 bits, because circuits often need more than one tube. Some modules handle 5 bits, some 3, it depends.

2026-06-07 17:29:42 GMT

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For more on the IBM 604 and this thyratron tube module, see my latest article: https://www.righto.com/2026/06/ibm-604-thyraton-tube-module.html

2026-06-07 17:29:23 GMT

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Pluggable tube modules were an important innovation. They made it easy to repair tube-based systems, they packaged components densely, and they paved the way for IBM's tube computers in the 1950s. IBM featured the modules in this 1952 ad from Time magazine: "Fingers you can count on". 4/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/710/002/138/525/318/original/ac23113bcb5f6077.png

2026-06-07 17:28:12 GMT

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The tube is not exactly a vacuum tube since it has a bit of xenon gas inside. It is called a thyratron: when it turns on, the xenon ionizes, allowing a large current to flow through the tube. In the IBM 604, thyratron tubes provided high-current pulses to the electromagnets to punch holes in cards.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/709/995/768/003/934/original/c8d064af13fc1d4e.png

2026-06-07 17:26:34 GMT

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The tube module acts as a high-current switch: I hooked it up to control a light bulb. The first button turns the module on with a small signal. The second button cuts the power to turn the module off. 2/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/709/988/997/608/709/original/0e140e699149097a.mp4

2026-06-07 17:24:35 GMT

The IBM 604 Electronic Calculating Punch was introduced in 1948. Not quite a computer, it was a programmable calculator that became very popular due to its low price of $550/month, and over 5600 were produced. I have a vacuum tube module from this system, so I powered it up... 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/709/983/493/765/921/original/e4c470945bdfb3ad.png
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/709/984/028/780/884/original/381d7e497e49bec4.png

2026-05-30 17:48:19 GMT

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I did this work with the Opcode Collective, especially Smartest Blob and Gloriouscow.
The full ROM image: https://8087.martypc.net/#dzi=tiles%2Ftiles.dzi
A description of the 8087 microcode: https://github.com/a-mcego/granite/blob/main/tools/8087mc/bin/8087.md

2026-05-30 17:47:35 GMT

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We are reverse-engineering the meaning of the 8087's microcode. For more details, see my latest article:
https://www.righto.com/2026/05/microcode-inside-intel-8087-floating.html

2026-05-30 17:44:23 GMT

In the 1980s, if you wanted your IBM PC to be faster for spreadsheets or CAD, you could buy the Intel 8087 floating-point chip. Internally, the chip runs special code called microcode. We opened the chip, extracted the microcode, and are figuring out how it works. 1/n
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/664/764/125/789/529/original/dbdbf19b55d610a4.png

2026-05-23 17:30:17 GMT

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Those documents should be very interesting. Do the documents describe programming the Spacelab computers in assembly, HAL/S, or something else?

2026-05-23 16:55:08 GMT

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Credits: thanks to Steve Jurvetson for providing the Spacelab computer. Thanks to Kyle Owen for the photo of the IBM AP-101SL computer.

2026-05-23 16:53:26 GMT

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Around 1991, the Spacelabe computers were upgraded, replacing the French Mitra 125 MS computers with more powerful IBM-made AP-101SL computers. The new computers still used simple ICs, but the "flat-pack" ICs were packed more densely. They also used semiconductor memory instead of magnetic core.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/624/925/956/285/669/original/6832fc08bb99f8a8.png

2026-05-23 16:50:20 GMT

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The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) is the heart of a computer, performing arithmetic. The ALU is a tiny part of a modern processor, but it occupied three circuit boards in the Spacelab computer. The larger chips are '181 ALU chips, each adding four bits; 8 chips let you add 32 bits.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/624/916/290/654/904/original/e8128ba960c8ccbc.png

2026-05-23 16:49:16 GMT

The Space Shuttle could hold a flying laboratory called Spacelab in its cargo bay. Three French-made computers ran Spacelab. I opened up a Spacelab computer and found that instead of a microprocessor, it is built from a multitude of simple chips. Let's take a closer look at the computer...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/624/912/700/890/522/original/214214663330bbfb.png

2026-04-18 18:50:17 GMT

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Although this unit looks like a gyroscope, it is not at all a gyroscope. There is nothing spinning.

2026-04-18 16:46:37 GMT

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The "Astro Tracker" was the heart of the celestial navigation system. The 4-inch clear bubble stuck out from the top of the aircraft to view the stars. Inside, a telescope and photomultiplier tube tracked a star, steered by motors and prisms.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/426/708/404/473/733/original/e91c4920c6f9ebea.png

2026-04-18 16:42:04 GMT

In the 1960s, the B-52 bomber could navigate by the stars. Celestial navigation requires spherical trigonometry, so an analog Angle Computer solved these equations electromechanically. Let's look inside...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/426/689/277/443/748/original/ba8e31cf1e24b027.png

2026-03-29 17:10:28 GMT

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In 1991, the Space Shuttle upgraded its computer to the AP-101S, replacing two 60-pound boxes with one box. Since there were five computers on the Shuttle, this change freed up 300 pounds for additional cargo. The CPU was implemented in three boards full of chips, one below. These boards were much larger than the earlier 4 Pi boards.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/313/560/937/224/462/original/52c1c1399755da8c.png

2026-03-29 17:05:00 GMT

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The Space Shuttle used a more advanced System/4 Pi computer called the AP-101B. A separate computer, the I/O Processor, provided 24 data buses to all parts of the Shuttle. These boxes still used individual TTL chips and magnetic core memory.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/313/536/095/110/947/original/e1a3f1289b90810a.png
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/313/541/468/850/195/original/8e27dd8ace3af0aa.png

2026-03-29 16:53:11 GMT

In 1967, IBM introduced the System/4 Pi line of aerospace computers, packing mainframe performance into a compact box. 4 Pi computers powered everything from military aircraft to the Space Shuttle to sonar systems on submarines. Thread...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/313/469/577/392/917/original/dc58a800e6094d8b.png
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/116/313/477/112/469/007/original/bd51682e80a94354.png

2026-01-23 17:51:13 GMT

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If you want more on the 8086 processor's ALU, see my latest blog post:
https://www.righto.com/2026/01/notes-on-intel-8086-processors.html

2026-01-23 17:49:35 GMT

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The control signals in the 8086 need to be amplified to drive the circuitry for 16 bits. The driver circuit is very unusual: it is a "bootstrap" circuit that uses stray capacitance to boost the output voltage higher than normal, similar to a charge pump. The transistor with +5 on the gate acts as a diode, preventing the extra voltage from escaping. On the die, you can see that the drive transistors are much larger than the regular transistors.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/945/661/335/648/174/original/86972c1629f867b7.png
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/945/661/833/356/559/original/f4ad96cd678a030a.png

2026-01-23 17:44:15 GMT

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Each bit of the 8086's ALU is implemented with an unusual circuit. It uses two lookup tables (trapezoids), loaded from six control signals. This reprograms the ALU's logic to implement the desired operation. This is similar to how an FPGA uses lookup tables to implement different logic functions.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/945/643/865/364/083/original/bfe68d6627e856d7.png

2026-01-23 17:41:29 GMT

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What's the XI mux? To make the 8086's microcode more compact, it often doesn't specify the ALU operation, using a special code "XI" instead. The hardware looks at the machine instruction, determines if it is an ADD, SUB, XOR, or so forth, and substitutes the correct ALU operation. Thus, one microcode routine can implement 8 different machine instructions.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/945/631/671/040/629/original/fa7522f7b00f42db.png

2026-01-23 17:35:57 GMT

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The 8086's microcode specifies what ALU operation to perform along with which temporary register to use. The control circuitry holds this information in latches. A PLA (Programmable Logic Array) decodes the instruction into dozens of control signals. The Lookup Table (LUT) PLA generates six signals that configure the ALU to perform the desired operation.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/945/606/310/637/415/original/2c3ef21544a485a0.png

2026-01-23 17:31:57 GMT

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) in the Intel 8086 processor (1978) is more complicated than you might expect, performing 28 different operations from addition and logical AND to shifts and BCD adjustment. A special control circuit reconfigures the ALU for each operation. Let's look closer...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/945/586/323/699/700/original/102fa0e7b5e6779e.jpg

2025-12-30 19:51:11 GMT

If you're interested in obscure details of the microcode in the Intel 8087 floating-point chip, I have a new blog post...
https://www.righto.com/2025/12/8087-microcode-conditions.html

2025-12-09 18:33:38 GMT

In 1980, Intel announced the 8087 Math Coprocessor, a chip that made floating-point 100 times faster. I opened up the chip, took photos of the silicon structures, and analyzed its circuitry. It's a very complex chip for its time. Let's take a look inside...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/691/041/901/490/910/original/1cdcfcb63068720f.png

2025-09-15 17:22:01 GMT

I've been using HTML forever, but I just learned that <div /> isn't the same as <div></div>.
In the first case, the div isn't closed and everything that follows is inside it.

2025-09-10 16:28:19 GMT

Can anyone identify these mystery terminals? The first is from "Los placeres ocultos" (1977). The second is from "Policia" (1987). (Someone wants help identifying computer hardware in Spanish movies.)
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/180/922/622/920/348/original/3775c09f6a038a85.jpg
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/180/923/259/523/681/original/2499d8b2885e7420.jpg

2025-09-09 20:33:19 GMT

Can anyone recognize this front panel from a mainframe computer from a 1978 Spanish movie? The black color resembles IBM System/370 panels, but the knobs don't look right. Other information suggests maybe an IBM-compatible FACOM/Fujitsu computer.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/176/229/183/333/474/original/11621ba59a67038f.png
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/176/230/628/398/559/original/7f8cfa6e50c0e0d8.jpg

2025-09-06 15:30:13 GMT

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Marilou Schultz's rug is on display at SITE Santa Fe's current exhibition: "Once Within a Time"; let me know if you see it!
Photo credit: rug photo from First American Art Magazine.

2025-09-06 15:29:48 GMT

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To learn more about the 555 timer rug, see my latest post: https://www.righto.com/2025/09/marilou-schultz-navajo-555-weaving.html

2025-09-06 15:29:16 GMT

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Marilou Schultz first made a chip rug in 1994, when Intel commissioned a rug based on the Pentium as a gift to AISES (American Indian Science & Engineering Society). The Pentium weaving used natural dyes, while the 555 weaving uses aniline dyes and some metallic threads for more intense colors.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/158/057/875/855/920/original/e58557ce2c42d82a.png

2025-09-06 15:28:14 GMT

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Marilou Schultz based the rug on a photo by Antoine Bercovici (Siliconinsider). He used a special dark field microscope that produces a black background, highlighting the metal wiring on top of the silicon. The rug (left) mostly matches the photo (right), but there are some artistic changes.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/158/055/265/875/669/original/d17a9422b875d9bf.png

2025-09-06 15:27:04 GMT

Celebrated Navajo (Diné) artist Marilou Schultz recently completed a striking weaving. Although this rug may appear abstract, it is a representation of the wiring inside an integrated circuit. It shows the 555 timer, said at one point to be the world's most popular IC. Let's take a closer look...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/158/050/948/973/697/original/1c67c7967bb775ca.png

2025-08-19 14:08:50 GMT

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That QR code is the coolest thing. Nice how the black parts show the underlying structure, including the alternating squares of the timing pattern, while the colored parts have the data

2025-08-18 18:49:18 GMT

The latest issue of the journal Science mentions a magnetic compound Cr2Gr2Te6. The element Gr confused me, but it turned out to be a typo for Ge, germanium. Strangely, I found multiple papers with the same typo in the same context, so I wrote a short blog post about it.
https://www.righto.com/2025/08/Cr2Ge2Te6-not-Cr2Gr2Te6.html
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2025-08-17 14:46:00 GMT

How did Intel's 386 processor connect to the outside world? Tiny wires connect to the bond pads around the edges. Special input/output circuits—visible in zoomed-in blocks—send and receive signals while protecting the chip from dangers that could destroy it. Let's take a look... 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/044/643/703/148/847/original/ade5aadb4db85882.png

2025-08-09 21:29:33 GMT

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Here's one more scan of the 386 for your viewing enjoyment...
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/115/000/927/586/381/110/original/1a3b0b8050871852.png

2025-08-09 16:49:07 GMT

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For more photos and information on the 386 package, see my latest blog post. Thanks to Jon Bruner and Lumafield for the CT scans.
https://www.righto.com/2025/08/intel-386-package-ct-scan.html

2025-08-09 16:48:24 GMT

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Here are the remaining four layers inside the package: one signal layer and three power layers. There are four power layers altogether so the chip's I/O circuitry and logic circuitry can be powered separately. That way, current surges from I/O don't affect the CPU.
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2025-08-09 16:45:03 GMT

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One of the six power layers inside the Intel 386 processor's packaging. It's almost a solid conductive plane; the grid of holes joins the ceramic above and below. Most of the pins are connected to lower layers, so only a few pins (red dots) reach this layer.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/999/810/561/736/923/original/def2ccedc0cd3ceb.png

2025-08-09 16:43:59 GMT

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The CT scan of a signal layer inside the 386's package. The wide abstract-looking regions connect the pins (red dots) to the chip in the middle. Unexpectedly, I spotted thin wires running to the edges of the chip. These are used during manufacturing to electroplate the pins with gold.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/999/804/296/926/732/original/b2bbce69021da18e.png

2025-08-09 16:42:20 GMT

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The silicon die of the 386 processor is mounted in the middle of the ceramic package. Tiny bond wires connect the die to two tiers of contacts that surround it. Intricate but hidden wiring inside the ceramic connects these contacts to the 132 gold-plated pins. 2/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/999/800/784/471/090/original/c93a49f63aaa3e6e.png
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2025-08-09 16:41:24 GMT

Intel's 386 processor was popular in late 1980s microcomputers. From the outside, the 386 chip is a boring ceramic square. But I obtained a 3-dimensional CT X-ray scan from Lumafield, revealing six layers of complex wiring hidden inside the ceramic package. Let's take a closer look... 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/999/798/287/025/630/original/b6b7263a4a45c5a4.png

2025-08-02 15:48:17 GMT

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The chip uses these components to turn an FM radio signal into audio by combining an oscillator, mixers, filters, amplifiers, and other circuits. If you want to know more about this FM radio chip, I go into great detail in my blog post: https://www.righto.com/2025/08/reverse-engineering-analog-TDA7000.html

2025-08-02 15:48:10 GMT

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The most unusual components in the chip are the "varicap diodes", which help adjust the radio's frequency. These special diodes act as capacitors with a value that can be controlled by changing the voltage.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/959/952/713/675/600/original/7618026ed7e72556.png

2025-08-02 15:47:30 GMT

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Another important part of the chip is the resistors, which impede the flow of electricity. They are typically long and zig-zagging. The ends of the resistors are connected to the metal wiring. The arrows indicate the holes in the insulating oxide layer where these contacts take place.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/959/950/899/190/720/original/87eafe22cbeca0a6.png

2025-08-02 15:46:58 GMT

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Transistors are the main components of the chip, amplifying signals and performing other functions. Modern chips use CMOS transistors, but this chip uses NPN and PNP transistors. These diagrams show how the transistors look on the die, along with cross sections showing the silicon layers.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/959/945/345/806/985/original/58435326da175ddd.png
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2025-08-02 15:45:41 GMT

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This close-up of the die shows how the metal wiring (white lines) connects the underlying silicon structures (gray and green). Unlike modern chips, this chip only has one layer of metal, so the wiring needs to twist and turn when other wires get in the way.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/959/942/774/410/322/original/449d60d870154dcf.png

2025-08-02 15:45:07 GMT

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Here's a die photo of the FM radio chip, the TDA7000. You can see the greenish silicon, with white metal wiring on top. The 18 white squares around the edges are the bond pads that connect the die to the chip's pins, with gold wires attached. I've labeled the main functional blocks of the chip. 2/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/959/939/647/229/975/original/cd11258761bb6f6f.png

2025-08-02 15:44:12 GMT

In 1983, Philips produced the first FM radio receiver on a chip, leading to products such as the FM radio wristwatch. Let's look at the tiny silicon die inside this chip and see how it works. 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/959/936/994/946/905/original/91629cbe2c94ae88.png

2025-07-21 16:38:46 GMT

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This box has thirteen orange digits at the top, which look like Nixie tubes. But they are a different technology called edge-lit lightguide display. Each digit has ten plastic sheets and ten lightbulbs. Each sheet has dots etched in the shape of a number. Lighting a sheet lights up that number.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/892/203/701/092/439/original/cd6176f12e31314c.png

2025-07-21 16:37:44 GMT

We obtained a mysterious box of 1960s electronics. I reverse-engineered it and with much effort, we got it running. It turns out to be a test unit for testing NASA's Up-Data Link, a system from the Apollo moon landing to control the spacecraft from the ground. Let's take a look inside... 1/n
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/892/199/248/415/500/original/4055c8cc57e3f577.png

2025-07-12 02:30:18 GMT

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Texas Instruments introduced LED-based opto-isolators in 1964. They used an infrared GaAs LED shining onto a silicon photo-transistor. This device had the curious name of "molecular multiplex switch/chopper"; making small devices through "molecular electronics" was the hot thing back then. The device cost $275 (almost $3000 in current dollars; nowadays, an opto-isolator costs a few pennies. 2/3
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2025-07-12 02:15:40 GMT

NASA used this "Up-Data Link Test Set" to test one of the electronic systems onboard the Apollo spacecraft. I've been reverse-engineering this box and I found that it uses LED-based opto-isolators. I didn't realize that they had LEDs and optoelectronics in the mid-1960s, so I investigated... It turns out that opto-isolators existed back then but were extraordinarily expensive. 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/837/825/895/886/494/original/eeac334015ce1042.png

2025-07-11 00:57:12 GMT

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And if you'd rather see inside the Globus visually, check out my blog post that examines its gears, cams, differentials, and other mechanisms in detail. It's essentially a mechanical analog computer. Thanks to Marcel for providing the Globus. 4/4
https://www.righto.com/2023/01/inside-globus-ink-mechanical-navigation.html

2025-07-11 00:56:52 GMT

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Lumafield's scanner is very cool if you want three-dimensional scans of objects for failure analysis, reverse engineering, or inspection. You can play with the Globus scan for yourself at this link, zooming, rotating, and slicing the Globus. 3/4
https://voyager.lumafield.com/project/d848dd54-d594-479f-a723-a463547ea7aa

2025-07-11 00:56:27 GMT

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This photo shows the Globus with its rotating globe and a crosshair showing the spacecraft's location. Dials next to the globe indicate latitude and longitude, while the dial at the bottom indicates when the spacecraft is in light or darkness. The knobs control orbital settings. 2/4
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2025-07-11 00:55:22 GMT

The Globus is a navigational instrument that uses a rotating globe to show the position of the Soyuz spacecraft above the Earth. Inside the Globus, a complicated system of gears and motors positions the globe. Jon Bruner from @npub1jsp…ggr4 created a three-dimensional X-ray scan for us. 1/4
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/831/862/779/820/382/original/e45eb7c1d2002304.mp4

2025-06-25 17:34:03 GMT

In the 1960s, this absurdly large camera was used to make masks for integrated circuits. The layers of the integrated circuit were drawn at large scale and then optically shrunk to make the glass masks that were used in manufacturing.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/745/201/551/682/693/original/c17a4bb37ddc8429.png

2025-06-20 03:02:53 GMT

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It turned out that the computer's START button had a strand of wire that shorted one of its contacts. As a result, it would keep re-starting as long as you held the button, blowing through the HALT or single-step until it crashed. The contacts bounced a bit, causing the random gaps we saw.
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2025-06-20 03:01:09 GMT

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You push the green START button on the console to start the computer after a HALT, and also to single-step it. Hmmm. For convenience, there's also a START button on the card reader and one on the printer. We found that everything worked fine with those buttons. Hmmm.
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2025-06-20 02:59:46 GMT

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I hooked up an oscilloscope and discovered that the computer wasn't running a single instruction cycle. Instead, it ran a few cycles (the pulses below), stopped briefly, ran a few more, irregularly stopping and starting, "building up steam" until it ran thousands of cycles. But why this pattern?
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/713/452/563/450/784/original/2120e7238b75cac3.png

2025-06-20 02:58:19 GMT

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The IBM 1401 computer lets you run code a single cycle at a time, so you can see what happens at each step. (The arrow on the control panel.) But when I tried to single-step through the bad HALT instruction, the computer immediately died in a distant memory location. Now we had two problems. 2/N
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2025-06-20 02:57:39 GMT

Last week, the vintage IBM 1401 computer at the Computer History Museum started behaving strangely: it wouldn't halt. More specifically, if you had two HALT instructions in a row, it would halt for the first, but when you continued, it crashed mysteriously. Here's how we fixed it.... 1/N
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/713/444/182/512/594/original/f544d480f5bac21d.png

2025-05-17 19:02:38 GMT

How thin is spider silk compared to the wiring on a chip? Here's a close-up of a spiderweb strand diagonally across an Intel 386 processor. The spiderweb is 4 µm thick, just a bit thinner than this 1985 chip's 5 µm metal wiring. Wiring in modern chips is 100 times thinner.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/524/719/690/200/261/original/723071f94cdf898d.png

2025-05-16 22:00:30 GMT

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Transistors in a matchbook? We considered replacing the bad transistor with one of these vintage Texas Instruments transistors that come in a cool package. But
@curiousmarc.bsky.social
found a different transistor that worked better. Next week I'll verify that it fixes the tape drive. 5/5
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/519/754/651/367/773/original/75aa3e6e6f8172a8.png
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2025-05-16 21:58:40 GMT

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We tracked down the fault to this circuit board and found the transistor in the lower left had failed.
@npub1vgw…46mg replaced the bad transistor with one from his extensive collection. This board is a "hex inverter". For comparison, a 1970s-era hex inverter IC is at the right.
https://assets.oldbytes.space/assets.oldbytes.space/media_attachments/files/114/519/750/015/431/953/original/e8bd76244fa9924a.png

2025-05-16 21:57:58 GMT

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Unfortunately, the computer sat in an unheated garage in Germany for many years, so many of the parts suffer from corrosion. You can see green corrosion around the base of some of these transistors. Every so often, one of the transistors will fail, causing a computer malfunction.
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